The importance of early formal education Essay Example for Free

The importance of early formal education Essay Abstract: Informed by, and primarily rooted in research, developmentally appropriate practice is central to optimizing children’s learning and development in early childhood educational settings CITATION Nat09 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009). The use of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) involves teaching in a way that understands development in the classroom individually, and as a whole CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). When considering the role of the early childhood educator, the creation of adaptive and accommodating teaching methods is crucial to building a supportive and dynamic environment for learning. In building such an environment, educators may use the guiding framework of DAP to ensure that their classroom not only reinforces an advantageous atmosphere that is developmentally appropriate at every level, but also actively encourages continuous positive growth for everyone in the learning community. This position statement reaffirms the benefits of DAP in an early childhood setting by examining its guidelines, the needs and characteristics of young children, the many factors influencing a child’s learning and development, creating an environment that meets these needs, family and community involvement,  and understanding the benefits and uses of assessment. Developmentally Appropriate Practice In order to highlight its benefit as an infrastructure to early childhood education, one must first understand developmentally appropriate practice itself. Key to understanding DAP is the understanding that it is informed by our knowledge of development through theory, literature, and research, confirming that it is an evidence based practice CITATION Nat09 \p 10 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009, p. 10). The essence of DAP, however, relies on conscious and constant intentionality, â€Å"in the  knowledge that practitioners consider when they are making decisions, and in their always aiming for goals that are both challenging and achievable for children† (9). This wealth of knowledge required of early childhood educators includes extensive understanding of development, but is shaped by one’s knowledge of each child as an individual, their needs and abilities, and the social and cultural contexts from which they come (9,10). This careful intention and forging of relationships fosters an overall enthusiasm for learning by creating an environment for each individual child in  which they are uniquely known, understood, and respected. The National Association for the Education of Young Children’s publication of their position statement in the mid 1980’s was highly influential in the widespread recognition of DAP CITATION Sue10 \p 70 \l 1033 (Bredekamp, 2010, p. 70). DAP is defined as a practice that promotes the optimal learning and development of young children, of which is grounded in research regarding both child development as well as what is required of effective education in early childhood settings (16). In the interest of this definition, developmentally appropriate practice outlines five significant  guidelines for addressing the decisions made by early childhood educators: creating a community of learners, teaching to enhance development and learning, planning curriculum to achieve important goals, assessing children’s development and learning, and establishing reciprocal relationships with families CITATION Nat09 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009). Criticism, however, has emerged in response to NAEYC’s position statements over the years, questioning whether the recommended practices retain equal relevance when applied to diverse groups of students CITATION Sue10 \p 71 \l 1033 (Bredekamp, 2010, p.71). In actuality, the significance of this statement is countered in the very definition of this statement, and is even directly addressed in the most recent publication of NAEYC’s position statement on DAP. â€Å"Because the United States children’s learning opportunities often differ sharply with family income 1 / 4 and education, ethnicity, and language background, sizable achievement gaps exist [and have been identified] between demographic groups† CITATION NAE09 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009). For this reason, a strong need for the narrowing of these gaps has been clearly emphasized, explaining that  educators and programs must therefore â€Å"provide even more extended, enriched, and intensive learning experiences† for children who’s learning opportunities have been disadvantaged by such disparities CITATION NAE09 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009). Characteristics and Needs of Children In order to enable children to reach challenging and achievable goals, understanding that all domains of a child’s development are interrelated is imperative. In this, children do not divide their experiences, but contrarily their learning and development evolves as one great culmination of all experience CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Not only are all areas of development and learning important; similarly, they are the result of the interaction between the sequential and varying maturation of the child and their growing experience CITATION Nat09 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009). The inseparable nature of all developmental domains: physical, social, emotional, and cognitive, illustrate the relative needs of each child at the different stages of their development. Every child is different, and while development may be predicted in a sequential progression, it does vary and cannot be completely limited to what we consider more exact periods of development. The generally accepted periods of development, however, refer to infancy extending from birth- 2years, early childhood as 2-5 years, and middle and late childhood as 5-11 years of age. Cephalocaudal pattern of growth characterizes physical development in infancy, where growth occurs from the head down, resulting in control of the head before the legs CITATION Joh11 \p 107 \l 1033 (Santrock, 2011, p. 107). Motor development then originates from the center of the body and moves outward, where coordination of the trunk and arms precede the hands and fingers CITATION Mot10 \l 1033 (Flinders University, 2010). Beginning as gross and graduating to fine motor development, reach and grasp are achieved in infancy. Crawling and walking also occur during infancy, typically between 5-17 months CITATION Mot10 \l 1033 (Flinders University, 2010). Motor abilities develop rapidly in early childhood in which walking leads to running and jumping, the ability to climb develops, and hand-eye coordination progresses with the growing ability to cross midline CITATION Joh11 \l 1033 (Santrock, 2011). By mid to late childhood myelination of the nervous system results in manipulation skills relative to that of an adults (153). Cognitive development can be simplified into three stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational. Infants in the sensorimotor stage coordinate an understanding of the world through sensory experiences, eventually leading to the beginnings of symbolic thought (174). During the preoperational stage, children’s ability to think symbolically expands as they begin to use words and images to represent their interpretation of the world (180). Their interpretation, however, is strongly influenced by egocentrism and centration (174). By mid to late childhood, the concrete operational stage emerges. From 6-7 years and on children exhibit the ability to perform concrete operations in their capacity to logically reason regarding concrete events, and use classification and seriation to organize objects (174). The maturation of self-understanding explains the complexities of social and emotional development in children. â€Å"Children are not just given a self by their parents or culture; rather, they construct themselves†(324). As they grow, their cognitive representation of the self, or self-understanding, changes (324). Self-recognition is the key indicator of self-understanding in infancy, and initially appears around three months of age (324). The ability to establish a positive recognition of oneself sets the stage for establishing relationships with others, as well as the eventual positive regulation and understanding of emotions. In conjunction with verbal communication, children are able to descriptively distinguish themselves, typically using abilities or accomplishments, active and physical descriptions, or unrealistic overestimations to define themselves (326-7). For example, a 4-year-old may describe himself or herself by saying â€Å"I know how to count† or â€Å"I have blonde hair and he has  brown hair† (325). Social comparison and self-description grow in complexity in mid to late 2 / 4 childhood, and include more realistic identifications of the self. With increased aptitude for perspective, children compare themselves with others, and use social and psychological traits to refer to themselves. For instance, a 7-year-old may say, â€Å"I am smart, and I can ride a bike as good as my sister† (326). Creating Learning Environments Providing an environment that is rich and diverse in intellectual and sensory experiences supports an effective and developmentally appropriate curriculum. The careful and informed intention of teachers is also reflected in learning environments that meet and challenge the needs of each individual child as well as the classroom as a whole. Infants and toddlers require a stimulating and dynamic sensory environment as they begin to establish themselves through the physical exploration of the world around them. As infants and toddlers begin to crawl, they need easily accessible opportunities to manipulate and observe their environment. Placing mirrors at ground level, and providing reachable and interesting toys and pictures, encourage development. The establishment of trust and autonomy is also central to infantile development; therefore, building responsive relationships between child and teacher should be emphasized as well as providing a safe and natural environment in support of the child CITATION Tri09 \l 1033 (Trister amp; Bickart, 2009). Interactively reading to infants and toddlers is vital to establishing a relationship with language and begins a visual familiarity with script CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Centering on initiative, 3 to 5-year-olds need an interactive environment that offers them many  choices, and allows them to grow in their decision-making abilities CITATION Tri09 \l 1033 (Trister amp; Bickart, 2009). Language skills during these years expand enormously, as do fine and gross motor abilities; meaning, the â€Å"richer and more interesting the environment, the more opportunities there are for children to learn† (1). The learning environment should reflect the very physically and socially active nature of 3 to 5-year-olds and should allow for spacious areas for high-level group play, as well as individual playtime. It is especially important to recognize that â€Å"the physical  environment is the vehicle through which children learn† and therefore should be changed periodically to inspire new experiences (1). During the years of mid to late childhood, autonomy becomes a source of power for children as they demonstrate self-direction and pride in accomplishment (1). The creation of stations, corners, or individual learning environments within the classroom provide space for this feeling of independence. Establishing friendships is very important to 6 to 8-year-olds, meaning that the environment should also include opportunities for high-level small group play. Across the  developmental board, however, a child needs to be able to see themselves in their environment as well as in their learning experiences. Interests of all children should be catered to by the learning environment as well as challenged by it. Displaying pictures of students, their work or accomplishments, and what intrigues them promotes positive development of the self, and creates enthusiasm for learning. Assessment Dynamic, constant, and ongoing assessment is key in early childhood education, and should barely look or behave like assessment at all CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). The power of  observation and assessment lies in their ability to tap into some of the purest and uninhibited forms of interaction children exhibit. â€Å"Play is the expression of who a child is in every way†, and therefore should be closely and individually observed in order to better understand exactly where children are developing, their strengths, what challenges them, and their unique interests CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Educators must asses major childhood growth and developmental domains, expected outcomes, and unique patterns of development in order to provide scaffolding experiences  that value each individual child as well as the learning community CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Maintaining portfolios for each child in a class tracks progress, as well as paints a better picture of development and learning for that child. Portfolios should be reviewed with the child and their families, contain notes and observations regarding the child in all domains, and should hold 3 / 4 examples of accomplishments made by the child reflected over time. Influences on Learning It is nearly impossible to identify every aspect of influence on a child’s learning. Among the  multitude of ways learning is influenced, the role of the teacher is paramount, along with the impact of peers, family, and culture. Parents are extremely powerful in their influence on their child’s sentiment towards learning and being a part of a community of learners. Encouragement and support from parents communicates the importance of their development, as well as fosters desire to learn and be a part of their greater community. Parents can demonstrate a loving care for their children’s continued achievement by doing something as simple as reading to them every night. By  making this simple commitment to their child, parents promote a positive attitude towards this sort of intellectual engagement, as well as strengthen a caring relationship with their child. Not only is learning made important by this, but so too is the importance of investing quality time together reinforced. Involving Families and the Community Families, culture, and communities that children come from directly impact their value and understanding of how one behaves, demonstrates respect, and appreciates CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Building reciprocal partnerships with parents and families establishes â€Å"mutual  respect, cooperation, shared responsibility† necessary in moving toward the achievement of shared goals CITATION Nat09 \p 23 \l 1033 (NAEYC, 2009, p. 23). Meeting the family where they are and where they come from, relationships are established through ongoing trust and commitment to one another. Families should be invited into the classroom community, supported, and encouraged in their involvement. Keeping families informed via newsletters, inviting them into the classroom, providing conferences, and even making home visits are all ways in which a caring community of learners is built CITATION Liz13 \l 1033 (Taylor, 2013). Conclusion The benefits of using developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education are exemplified in its specific intention to meet and challenge the developmental needs of each individual child, as well as the entire class. By discussing the characteristics and needs of children, their progressive development across all domains, the ways in which their learning environment reflects and meets those needs, the importance and benefits of assessment, influences on learning, and the importance of family and community involvement, one can see how DAP holistically  approaches early childhood education. Works Cited BIBLIOGRAPHY Bredekamp, S. (2010). Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education: Building a Foundation . Online . Flinders University. (2010, Feb 6). Motor Development. Retrieved from ehlt. flinders. edu. au: http://ehlt. flinders. edu. au/education/DLiT/2000/Motor%20Dev/start. htm NAEYC. (2009). Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8. (C. Copple, amp; S. Bredekamp, Eds. ) Retrieved from National Association for the Education of Young Children: www. naeyc. org NAEYC. (2009). Key Messages of the Position Statement. (C. Copple, amp; S. Bredekamp, Eds. ) Retrieved from National Association for the Education of Young Children: www. naeyc. org Santrock, J. (2011). Child Development (13th ed. ). New York : McGraw-Hill . Taylor, L. (2013, November ). Developmentally Appropriate Practice . (E. 3. Lecture, Interviewer) Trister, D. , amp; Bickart, T. (2009). How Curriculum Frameworks Respond to Developmental Stages: Birth through Age 8. Retrieved December 2013, from ECAP Collaborative : http://ecap. crc. illinois. edu/pubs/katzsym/dodge. html POWERED BY TCPDF (WWW. TCPDF. ORG).

The Multiple Person Complex :: Writing Education Teaching Essays

The Multiple Person Complex Well, I am embarrassed to admit this, but the assignment of the metaphor for life at a university was not something I worked very hard to write. Even more embarrassing is that it is evident when you read my paper. When I look back on it, I don't see a metaphor at all. A comparison? Yes. But there's no metaphor in my paper. That proves to me, and everyone in the class, that I didn't put a lot of thinking into my writing. So I have to ask myself why a paper that was easy enough to write could have turned out so wrong. I think that I truly intended to use a jigsaw puzzle as a metaphor for my experiences of life at Bemidji State University. But as I wrote the paper, I remember feeling removed from the project and the contents. I was merely "creating" in to hand in. So I started with an object I could use for a metaphor, the puzzle, then just wrote out a simple comparison. I didn't even think about it not being a metaphor until I got it back a couple of days ago. It wasn't at all how I viewed life at the college. It was simply easier to do, than to explain way I really felt, like some strange force just keeps pushing me through school, and that I don't feel comfortable with the idea of what my education will bring me, or won't bring me. Instead of putting my real experiences on the paper with my real voice pulling the reader into my paper, I ended up with a dull, simple paper that didn't even fulfill the assignment. The difference between me as the writer and the "me" portrayed in my papers is evident in my paper "Thoughts on Organization." I was very unsure of how to do the assignment, so I followed Marnie's advice and just started writing as things came to me. I wrote my thoughts as they occurred, basically. My little quirky comments are very true to my personality. In the metaphor paper I didnà ­t use any of them. In fact, I purposely kept them out, thinking they had no place in a paper or essay. (How very institutionally OS of me, huh?) The reason I put the into other papers, is because I worked really hard on the, gave them long consideration, and wrote them with me as the "character" in them.

Adulthod final

The distinction of the age range within each stage of development or within a single stage say childhood or adolescence varies from one community to another. These distinctions are not fixed and they vary greatly depending on the culture and the social orientation of the society doing the distinction.For instance, the age at which an individual is seen as a juvenile varies from state to another and therefore it is automatic that the age of at which one converts to an adult from adolescence will also vary. Therefore the distinction between childhood and adulthood will also vary between these states and generally vary from one cultural and social group to another all along history.It is important to note that the passage year into adulthood or passage years within adulthood itself as a stage of development is socially and culturally fixed. All cultures divide the entire life of human beings into more all the same but what differ are the transition ages from one stage to another or from one sub stage (within one development stage say adulthood) to another.Of great importance are the roles that come with the attainment of each development stage (Barber, 1957).These roles are assigned or expected in each society or culture differently and on the basis of the developmental changes observed at each stage. For instance, one will be expected to marry and raise a family at the entry into adulthood whereas other societies will prefer on to move on to the middle adulthood before he or she could marry.This paper seeks to address the stages of adulthood giving a detailed description of the changes observed at each stage of adulthood and at the same time addressing how public policy affects each period of development and examine the different cultural influences during each developmental period.2.0 Literature ReviewLife development stages are often marked by certain specific social, physical and psychological developments or changes. When these changes are observed the assign ment of rights, roles, privileges and responsibilities then takes place but this assignment is depended on the culturally defined or defined as a matter of official policy.For instance, in Western industrialized societies, the life development stages are defined as Prenatal stage (conception- birth), Infancy (birth-2 years), Early childhood (3-6 years), Middle childhood (6 years- puberty which of course varies), Adolescence (beginning of puberty to adulthood), Young adulthood (20-40 years), Middle adulthood (40-65 years) and Later adulthood old age (sixty-five and older).Of great concern especially for this paper are the stages of adulthood which as seen from above list is divided into 3 stages: Young adulthood (20-40 years), Middle adulthood (40-65 years) and Later adulthood/old age (65 years and older) (Pikunas& Eugene, 1991).A young adult is lies between the age of 20-40 and individuals in this sub stage of adulthood display energy and vigor. They are generally of perfect health and bereft of problems related to senescence. Physical performance reaches the peak at the age of 20-35an starts to wane after 35, Strength peaks at 25 and remains constant through 35-40 after which it starts to decline and Flexibility decrease as the age goes past 35 or 40.It is important to note physical differences in which a 40 year old may out beat a 20 year old on many of the aspects highlighted above. Women in this group reach their fertility peak which then decreases gradually as age progresses. For instance, there is 50%, 40% and 30% for women aged19-26, 27-34 and 35-39 respectively (Lesser & Pope, 2007).At this sub stage of adulthood, the members think in a more mature way as oppose to the preceding adolescence stage and focus more on the positive construction of a bright future ahead of them. Further, they learn to appreciate value in things and issues, tangible or intangible, and their relationships with adults improve markedly.Middle adulthood, according to the US offic ial policies , includes the ages 35-54 year olds but Erik Erikson deems otherwise and thinks that this stage end later and thus sets the stage to last from 40-65 years old. This stage succeeds young adulthood and it is defined by visible aging signs such as graying of hair and loss of skin elasticity, put up of body weigh usually due to reduced physical activity and decrease in strength and flexibility.Female fertility also decreases significantly during this stage of middle adulthood. However, the aging process observed in this stage varies from one individual to another mainly through the concept of individual differences (Shephard, 1998).Finally, late adulthood or old age starts from 65 years and above. However this boundary between the middle adulthood and old age may not be categorically placed because it doesn’t share the same connotations in all societies and therefore it varies from on society to another.For Instance, in most parts of the world, old age is assigned to people based on certain changes in their lives, activities and social roles i.e. people are said to be old   when they assume or become grandparents, or when they retire.European and North American societies identify old age with attainment of specific number of years. This apparently last stage of the human life cycle is distinct of limited regenerative ability with the members being highly prone to disease sickness and syndromes besides other aspects of senescence.3.0 Statement of the ProblemThe stages of adulthood development vary from one society or government to another. It is evident that the age definitions of these sub stages of adulthood differ from one official government policy to another and these governments fix these age .numbers based on the societal assignments of roles.The society on the other hand assigns roles, responsibilities, privileges etc basing on the public policy defined by the government. Therefore, it goes without saying that public policy affects eac h of the sub stages of adult development cultural orientation immensely influences each sub stage of developmental period.4.0 Research MethodsThe method of collecting data is designed in a way that one randomly observes various people in various sub stages of adulthood noting the common physical, social and even psychological features where possible. Further, at least ten individuals in each sub stages of the adulthood stage i.e.Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, Late Adulthood, Elderly are interviewed to state why they think they qualify to be in their respective sub stage of adulthood and what are some of the responsibilities, roles, rights etc that come with each sub stage of adulthood development. The research schedule was set a below:4.1 Early AdulthoodObservation: physical, psychological and social featuresInterview: to state why they think they qualify to be in their respective sub stage of adulthood and the responsibilities, roles and rights that come with this sub stageTime : 3 Hours4.2 Middle AdulthoodObservations: physical, psychological and social featuresInterview: to state why they think they qualify to be in their respective sub stage of adulthood and the responsibilities, roles and rights that come with this sub stageTime: 3 Hours4.3 Late AdulthoodObservation: physical, psychological and social featuresInterview: to state why they think they qualify to be in their respective sub stage of adulthood and the responsibilities, roles and rights that come with this sub stageTime: 3 Hours4.4 ElderlyObservation: physical, psychological and social featuresInterview: to state why they think they qualify to be in their respective sub stage of adulthood and the responsibilities, roles and rights that come with this sub stage

The rapidly changing roles in companies - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 22 Words: 6691 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Business organizations in all parts of the world are changing very quickly. This is an important point for all effective managers. As respects to globalization and competitive markets in new century, organizations should continuously study their systems, structures and review their environment to verify their necessity integrity and adaptability with any changes. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The rapidly changing roles in companies" essay for you Create order An organization becomes what its people become. So only the organizations which esteem human resources and social investments like building safe, warm and trustful atmosphere can survive. It seems that successful organizations pay more attention to their internal structure and integrity because of its worth. Proper organizational structure facilities the way organization must go to achieve their goals. In other words accurate structure can enable organizations to evolve in their life. In this research we would like to design the proper structure for one of the Iranian most reputable EPC Contractors in the fields of Water and Waste Water Industries. Although it has structure now, we want to verify it. For this purpose we study the organization in phases by several techniques to determine the organizations organic degree. Therefore we design the appropriate structure. Application of an organization chart is often to represent the relationship between the employees and identify th e managerial relationships clearly. Consequently our final is Top Chart for Shafab Company. Hypothesis Today Companies act in an unstable environment. Companies, whom want to have an acceptable market share, should change. Thus, the dynamic and changing environments that organizations face today require adaptation, sometimes calling for deep and rapid responses. Change management means to plan, initiate, realize, control, and finally stabilize change processes on both, corporate and personal level. Change is the continuous adoption of corporate strategies and structures to changing external conditions. Today, change is not the exception but a steady ongoing process. [12] Every business to growth and become development change is an essential process. Techniques that work in one organization may not work and even fail, in another organization within the same culture/country and countries. Since organizations differ in many ways, any change intended, for it to implement effectively should be congruent with the dynamism, complexity and uniqueness of an organization. Once an org anization has defined its desired state, it has to identify the appropriate leverage that would assist it move from the present to the desired state. This leverage could be organizational structure. This change in the organization could be called organizational restructuring. This will be followed by some of the process and people oriented strategic leverages. Here I attend to the organizational structure of the Shafab Company as a leverage of organizational change. As it will be explained in the organizational recognition, this company is faced to changes. It will be expanding its services and likewise its market. A need for some change based on future goals and marketing audition is felt. One of the most important elements of a successful organization which is facilitated the organization change, is its structure. To have an effective organization structure, managers should use authentic models to reorganize their organization. For evaluating the organization, here I use Richard L. Dafts model (it will explain in the methodology). In this model, according to the Mintzberg structures, the most important thing is to determine the degree of organic structure that a company needs. By studying present structure of the Shafabs organization and the nature of the company activities, it seems that it should have an organic structure. In this company many departments are in the direct control of the manager, so the structure is very flat. The organic/ mechanic degree of an organization is depending on several items. So to evaluate the degree, first the status of the company should evaluate in each context. To analyze the assumption, the degree of the organic or mechanic structure which is fit with the organization conditions should be computed. Finally the accuracy or inaccuracy of the assumption is shown in the result chapter. chapter1: LIterature review An overview Since organization and management science emerged in the early 1900s in conjunction with the industrial revolution, concepts of organizations function and the nature of them changed. [1] These concepts have grown in dynamic trend with in the organizations and institutions. In the twenty century many colleges, universities and other knowledge resources have focused on the management science and especially organization structures concepts. Success at the task would most likely depend on how well the consultant grasped some basic principals about organizations. This chapter provides a very brief description of the major concepts in the organization and management sciences, specifying key contributors in these fields of research. Some Basic Definitions There are three terms that have important impact on organization themes, and a useful frame for viewing an organizations needs. They are organization, organization structure and organization design. To study organization theory and design, first these terms should be defined. There are different definitions from this term. But one of the most credible and simple is the definitions which are mentioned in the Robbins book. An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relatively identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. [2] The words consciously coordinate imply management. Social entity means that the unit is composed of people or groups of people who interacts with each other. People in an organization have some continuing bond. This bond, of course, does not mean lifelong membership. On the contrary, organizations face constant change in their membership, although they are memb ers, the people in organization participate with some degree of regularity. Organization wants to achieve something. This something is goals. In the people viewpoint, these goals may be unattainable. But if members of the organization work together, they can achieve the goals effectively. Another definition implies that: Organizations are 1) social entity that are 2) goals directed, 3) are design as deliberately structured and coordinated activity system, and, 4) are linked to the external environment.[3] The key element of an organization is not a building or a set of policies, and procedures. People are the most important element of an organization and their relationships have an important role in an organization success. As its demonstrated, the definition of Organization shows the need for formal interaction patterns of people in the organizations. Organization structure specifies how tasks to be allocate, who reports to whom, and formal coordinating mechanisms and inte raction partners that will be followed. [2] There is much different organizations structure. Some of them are defined Complexity, formalization and centralization as three components of organizations structure. These elements will define in the next chapters. The terms of organization design concerned with constructing and changing an organizations structure to achieve the organizations goals. [2] More specifically, Organization Design is a formal, guided process for integrating the people, information and technology of an organization. Organization structure helps organizations to achieve desired purposes. Through the process of organization design, they endeavor to improve the collective efforts of the members and guide them in the way which implies organizations to the success. Typically, design is approached as an internal change under the guidance of an external facilitator of the environment. Managers and members work together to meet the organizations needs most e ffectively. Organization theory From the previous definitions, it is not difficult to deduce what it means by the term organization theory. It is the discipline that studies the design and structure of an organization. It studies both descriptive and perspective aspects of the discipline. It focuses on how organizations are actually structured and offers suggestions on how they can be constructed to improve their effectiveness. [2] In the other word, Organizational theory (OT) is the study of organizations for the benefit of identifying common themes for the purpose of solving problems, maximizing efficiency and productivity, and meeting the needs of stakeholders.ÂÂ   Broadly OT can be conceptualized as studying three major subtopics: individual processes, group processes and organizational processes. [2] The importance of organization theory But the important thing is that why study OT? Organizations are the dominant form of institutions in the society. People are born in the Hospital, and educated in the schools. Both of them are organizations. Organizations pervade all aspects of peoples life in the society. It is not unreasonable, then to expect people to understand this phenomenon that is so intertwined in the people lives. Even though people may have no desire to apply their knowledge, they may simply seek an answer to why organizations with which they interact are structured the specific way. At the more sophisticated level, people may want to replace their intuitive theories of organization with ones that have been derived scientifically and systematically. Almost every issue within OT can be cataloged as answer to one of the five followed questions: How do managers know if an organization is successful? What are the components of an organization? What determines the structure of an organiza tion? What option do managers have for designing their organization and when should each be used? How do managers apply knowledge of organization theory to the resolution of current management problems? Because of five questions are critical ones in OT, answers of them should be framework of OT. organizational EFFECTIVENESS The proper organization structure makes an organization effective. The way people and jobs come together and define their roles and relationships is an important determinant in whether an organization successful. Efficiency and effectiveness were originally concepts in the field of the industrial engineering that came of age in the early twentieth century. Some Management theorists like Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were the first group of expert which studied to improve efficiency. Work simplification also led to terminology like streamlined processes and efficiency experts, but the emphasis was still on time and motion. Effectiveness, means attaining the goals of organization. The concept of efficiency is the ratio of organizations outputs in related to inputs. Companies should measure organizational efficiency and effectiveness and should inform to their stakeholders like customers, suppliers, executives and process owners. These stakeholders should adapt themselve s to the organization desired results. There are different approaches to appropriate measure of effectiveness. There Early models of organizational effectiveness generally focused on a single criterion of organizational success. The most popular of these was profit maximization. Our final goal in designing the proper structure is increasing the amount of efficiency and effectiveness. The next figure can show the relation between effectiveness and organizational structure. Organizational Effectiveness Dimensions of organization design The next step to design an organization and its structure is to spot two important dimensions in the organizational design. These dimensions proffer a fit way to the organization in the context of personality and physical traits. Organizational dimension fall into two types: structural and contextual. Structural dimensions provide labels to describe the internal characteristics of an organization. These dimensions enable organization comparison. Contextual dimensions characterized the whole organization, including size technology, environment and goals. They describe the organizational settings that influences and shapes the structural dimensions. Contextual dimension can be confusing because they represent both the organization and environment. Contextual dimensions can be envisioned as a set of overlapping elements that underlie an organizations structure and work processes. Managers should consider both structural and contextual dimension to have a whole view of their organiz ation. In the following section of this chapter these two dimensions of organization design will be describe in detail. Contextual Dimensions Strategy Organization s in their lives try to accomplish something. Research have been identified a number of variables as determinants, some looking a great deal more promising than others. Strategy is now just on in the last set of variables. [2] As Robbins mentioned in his book, strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. [2] Managers think of goals and strategic interchangeable, but here goals are define where organization wants to go and strategies define how it will get there. If a goal of an organization achieve 10 percent annual growth, companys strategy should adopt strong advertising to attract new customers, motivating salesperson to increase the average size of customer purchase, and acquiring other business that produce similar products. Briefly, strategy considers both means and ends. The goals and decision making of an organizations strategy may be planned ahead of time or may just evolve as a pattern in a stream of significant decisions. Either way, those advocates of strategy determines structure position perceive decision makers as choosing the structure they have. Strategy and structure Linking Structure to Strategy It will be noted that every one of the circumstances, either proximal or underlying , that gives rise to organization studies might equally well indicate the need to reexamine the basic strategy of the enterprise. One of good experience in this context is the experience of the McKinsey which indicate that strategy and structure should view to each other. Mangers would, however, give first priority to the mission, the goals, the commitments of resources, and the major programs that constitute the strategy of the enterprise. They would do so because in our experience the most serious problems of large enterprises are strategic rather than organizational. The failure to survive, to produce effectively, or to meet the aspirations of those who own or direct the enterprise is more often than not the result of bad strategic decisions: enterprises try to continue to operate on a scale that is no longer economic; manufacturers fail to produce a new produc t, or produce the wrong product at the wrong time; resource-based industries fail to protect their supplies or integrate forward to protect their markets; single market firms fail to diversify. Reallocating tasks, authorities, and information flow can, to be sure, improve organizational effectiveness by raising productivity and, at least temporarily, arresting declines in cost or profit performance. But the introduction of improved organizational forms rarely produces a dramatic change in organizational performance except as it makes possible new and superior strategic decision making. Organization design at one time was conducted in a static context. The tasks essential to the current business of the enterprise were identified and then aggregated in ascending hierarchical levels to form the classical pyramid. Today, however, no organization design for a large enterprise would be based solely on present operations. It is absolutely essential that it reflect any proposed change in th e basic mission of die enterprise and that it be fashioned in the light of top management goals and strategic programs. The analysis of organization structure, then, must begin with an understanding of die strategy of the enterprise. The analytical process itself is essentially the same whether the enterprise is diversified or homogenous, public or private, in an advanced nation or a developing country. [7] Historian Alfred Chandler studied the relations between a firms strategy, its environment, and its structure, and concluded that structure follows strategy. Specifically his findings suggest that a strategy diversification typically need for firm to decentralize. Chandler investigated thesis by analyzing the administrative histories of about 100 of Americans largest industrial enterprises. Information was obtained from such sources as annual reports, articles and government publications, as well as selected interviews with CEOs. [5] He found that a changing economic environ ment in American led companies to developed new strategies, which in turn necessitated new organizational structure. Thus, structure followed strategy. A strategy aimed at increasing volume and production efficiency led to an environment that was relatively stable and undifferentiated. Similar findings have been obtained in a developing country. Researchers collected from 30 manufacturing firms in India, a variety of industries that included chemical, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, machine tools, and soft drinks. They found that results of their study provide further evidences in support of a contingency theory of organizations. They could not include that dynamic, competitive market conditions necessitated decentralization whereas stable conditions necessitated centralization. However, they did find that the decentralized structure was more important for firms effectiveness when the environment was dynamic than when it was stable. [6] So it is clear that strategy affects stru cture. Choice of strategy affects internal organization characteristics. Organization design characteristics need to support the firms competitive approach. Strategy and structure theory As it noted previously, strategy is broad concept and every one can view it from different aspect. One of the most important strategy and structure theories which are used in this thesis, is the model which is developed by Miles and Snow. Miles and Snow study different type of the organizations in small or large corporations. Then they developed a theory which indicates that there is a very clear direction between organizations mission statement and the organizations corporate and functional strategies. Their classification of four strategic types, based on the rate at which an organization changes its product or markets, is currently most popular framework for defining strategy and impact on structural design. Four strategic types: Miles and Snow classify organization into one of the four strategic types: Defenders, prospectors, analyzers and reactors While their discussion centers on business firms, the categories they use probably have their counterpart in non profit organizations as well. In the figure Miles and Snows four strategies are described as falling along a continuum that ranges from a low to high terms of environmental change and uncertainty. [2] Miles Snow strategic approach Environment strategy continuum Management perceives little or no change and uncertainty in the environment under the defender strategy. The successful structure under such conditions should be designs for optimum efficiency. This efficiency can best be achieved through high divisions of labor, standardization of operations, high formalization, and centralized decision making. Organizations following a reactor strategy respond to change reluctantly. Management perceives some change and uncertainty, but they are not likely to make any substantial adjustment until forced to by environmental pressures. So this structure is likely to look very much like the one describes defender. Managers pursuing an analyzer strategy perceive a considerable degree of change and uncertainty but wait until competitors develop a viable response, and then they quickly adopt it. In the analyzer strategy, managers try to develop flexible structure for the new activities because their face stronger uncertainty. Finally, prospecto rs strategies require the greatest degree of structural flexibility. There is the lot of change and uncertainty, so structures should be highly adaptive. This would translate into low complexity, low formalization, and decentralized decision making. Organizational size and lifecycle Organization size In this section the question about the large versus small organization and how size is related to the structure will be answered. Organization size is a contextual variable that influences organizational design and functioning just as do the contextual variables technology, environment, goals. In the 1990,s Americans management argue, Peter Drucker, declared that the fortune 500 is over ; yet the dream of practically every businessperson is still to have his or her company become a member of fortune 500 list- to grow fast and grow large. Sometimes this goal is more urgent than to make the best products or show the greatest profit. Many observations identify that USA is entering new era of bigness. The reason is that, in the universal dimension companies can compete better. There are other pressures for organization to grow. Many executives believe that growth help organizations to become health in the economic aspect. To stop growing is to stagnate. To be stable means that cu stomers may not have their demands of fully or those competitors will increase market share at the expense of your company. Scale is crucial to economic health in marketing intensive companies such as Coca Cola. Greater size gives these companies power in the market place and thus increased revenues. In addition growing organizations are very exciting places to attract and keep quality employees. When the number of employees expanding, the company can offer many challenges and opportunities for advancement. Large versus small Organization feel completed to grow, how much and how large? What size organization is better poised to compete in a global environment? Large: huge resources and economies of scale are needed for many organizations to compete globally. Large organizations also are standardized, often mechanistically run, and complex. The complexity offers hundred of functional specialists within the organization to perform complex tasks and produce complex products. More ever, large organizations, once established, can be presence that stabilizes a market for years. Managers can join the company and expect a career reminiscent of the organization men of 1950s and 1960s. The organization can provide longevity, raises and promotions. Small: the competing argument says small is beautiful the crucial acquirements for success in global economy are responsiveness and flexibility in fast- changing markets. While the US economy contains many large organizations, researches shows that as a global tra des has accelerated, smaller organization had become a norm. Today fully 96% of experts are small business. The development of the Internet has provided fertile ground for the growth of small firms. In addition, the rapidly growing service sector, also contributes to a decrease in average organization size, since most service companies remain to be responsive to customers. Organizational lifecycle A useful way to think about organizational growth and change in the concept of an organization lifecycle, which suggest the organization are born, grow older, and eventually become die, organization structure, leadership style, and administrative system follow a fairly predictable pattern through stages in the lifecycle. According to this concept the sequential process is as follow: Entrepreneurial stage: When an entrepreneur builds a business or a company try to create a new product they devote their full energies to the technical activities of production and marketing. The organization is informal and non bureaucratic. The hours of work are long. Control is based on the owners personal supervision. Growth is from a creative new product or service. Crisis: need for leadership. As the organization starts to grow, the larger number of employees causes problem. The creative and technically oriented owners are confronted with management issues, At this time entrepreneurs must either adjust the structures of the organization to accommodate continues growth or else bring in strong managers who can do so. Collectivity stage: Is the leadership crisis is resolved, strong leadership is obtain and the organization beings to develop clear goals and direction. Departments are established along with a hierarchy of authority and job assignments. In this stage there are a few formal systems in the organization. The communication between the members almost is informal. The work hours are long and the employees spend much time to their organizations success. Crisis: need for delegation. If the new management has been successful, lower level employees gradually find themselves restricted by strong op to down leadership. An autonomy crisis occurs when to p management, who were successful because of their strong leadership and vision; do not want to give up responsibility. Top managers want to make sure that all parts of the organization are coordinate and pull ing together. The organization needs to find the mechanism of control and coordinate departments without direct supervision from the top. Formalization stage: This stage involves the installation and use of rules, procedures and control systems. Unlike the collectivity stage, the communications between employees are informal. Human resource specialist, different engineers and other staff may be added. Top management becomes with issue such as strategy and planning, and leaves the operation of the firm to middle management. Product groups or other decentralized units may be formed to improve coordination. Incentive systems based on profits may be implemented to ensure that managers work toward what is best for the overall company. Crisis: too much Red Tape. As this point to the organizations development, the proliferation of systems and programs may being to strangle middle- level executives. The organization seems bureaucratized. Middle management may resent the intrusion o f staff people. Innovation may be restricted. The organization seems too large and complex to be managed through formal programs. Elaboration stage: Team work is the best solution for the red tape crisis. Management develops skills confronting problems and working together. Bureaucracy may have reached its limited. Formal systems may be simplified and replaces by manager teams and task forces. To achieve collaboration, teams are often formed across functions and divisions of the company. The organization may also be split into multiple divisions to maintaining a small company philosophy. Crisis: need for revitalization. After the organization reaches to maturity, it may enter period of organizations decline. After twenty years of organizations life, this crisis may be occurred. In this stage, renewing is needful for every organization. The organization shifts out of alignment with the environment or perhaps becomes slow moving or over bureaucratized and must go through a st age for streamlining and innovation. Top managers are often replaced during this period specifications Entrepreneurial Non bureaucratic Collectivity Pre bureaucratic Formalization Bureaucratic elaboration Very bureaucratic Structure Informal, one person show Mostly informal, some procedures Formal procedures, divisions of labor, new specialties added Team work within bureaucracy, small- company thinking Products Single product or services Major product or service with variations Line of products or services Multiple products or services lines Reward and control systems Personal paternalistic Personal contribution to success Impersonal formalized system Extensive, tailored to product and department Innovation By owner manager By employees and managers By separate innovation group By institutionalized RD department Goal Survival Growth Internal stability, market expansion Reputation, complete organization Top management style Individualistic, entrepreneurial Charismatic, directing- giving Delegation with control Team approach, attack bureaucracy Specifications of organization lifecycle stages Technology There is general agreement among OT researchers about the definition of the technology in the organizations. As Robbins stated technology refers to the information, equipment, techniques, and process required transforming input to output. [2] There is also agreement that the concept of technology, despite its mechanical or manufacturing connotation, is applicable to all types and kinds of organizations. Regardless of whether the organization is a manufacturing firm, a bank, or a military squadron, it will use a technology of some sort to produce its product or service. Perrows model for assessing organization technology One of the major disabilities of technology assessments models was that they could not analyze service firms. Because service firms represent a large number of organizations, it is necessary to define the concept of the technology in the service companies. [2] Charles Perrow has a useful model in this case. As Robbins stated in his book Charles Perrow assumes that: the type of technology determines an organizations most effective structure and success in the market. [2]There are two dimensions for Perrows model: Task variability and task analyzability. Task variety means that a worker faced two how many exceptions in a work day. Task with high degree has analytical methods to do works. According to these two types there four types of organizations technology. These four forms are represented as follows: ROUTINE These types of the organizations are some like traditional manufacturing. There isnt any important exception in doing works. The tasks are completely analytical. CRAFT There isnt any important exception too but the outcomes are not predictable. An example of this type of organizations technology is to dissolve a extent problem with new methods. ENGINEERING In this type of technologies, people face to many exceptions, but the work is analytical. It means that there are standard methods to do things. Most engineers and accountants use this type of technology in their work. NON-ROUTINE It is characterized by many exceptions and poor comprehension. There isnt any accepted method to do things. The more routine the technology, the more highly structured the organization should be. Conversely, non-routine technologies require greater structural flexibility. Perrow then identified the key aspects of structure that could be modified to the technology: (1) the amount of discretion that can be exorcized for completing tasks, (2) the power of groups to control the units goals and basic strategies, (3) the extent of interdependence between these groups, and (4) using either feedback or the planning of others. The table summarizes Perrows predictions. Technology Formalization Centralization Span of control Coordination and control Routine High High Wide Planning and rigid rules Engineering Low High Moderate Reports and meetings Craft Moderate Low Moderate-wide Training and meetings Nonroutine Low Low Moderate-narrow Group norms and group meetings Environment Defining and measuring of the environment Scanning the external environment of an organization is the subject which is very important in most managements decisions. One the most usable theory in this context is contingency theory. The scanning process of the external business environment should be examined on the basis of systems theory, the phenomenon of human communication, and, finally, the classic research of Aguilar (1967) and Lawrence and Lorschs (1967, 1969, 1970) contingency theory. Through this approach, it is possible to arrive at a new organizational model, which can possibly clarify some conceptual issues in relation to scanning. Its primary conceptual issue is based on the assumption that all organizations are open systems and survive through their external environments. Finally, contingency theory attempts to explain the way organizations function under different conditions of the external environment. In other words, this approach arrives at the conclusion that the external environment within which an organi zation chooses to function, determines the internal structure, and the overall procedures of this specific organization. So, organizations with different external environment and different types of tasks need different structure. Management professionals in this context face to a question: which types of organizations characteristics are needed in order to effectively face the different external environments, such as the different markets, technological conditions, etc.? As a consequence, in the last few years, the researchers pay attention to the linkage between organization and its external environment, which is the scanning process. But, despite the fact that the issue of scanning is of vital importance to the viability of the organization, there are certain managers, who are trapped by the faulty assumption that somehow the external environment does not really matter so much since it cannot be controlled anyway. On the other hand, managers try to collect as much data as possi ble, are faced with a strong contradiction, which is the uncertainty of the fast changing environment. This uncertainty relates to all those external events that affect the organization. Therefore, I can safely conclude that the different kinds of hierarchies, organizational practices, and strategies, which have been developed in the past, do not seem to fulfill the needs, the demands and the provocation of the present. There is no doubt that managers who insist on scanning the environment through outdated organizational structures and practices sooner or later are led to the wrong conclusions about the state of affairs of the external environment. The recent developments in contingency theory and organizational development [31], despite the fact that they are on the right track, do not seem to move towards a deeper theoretical or conceptual inquiry of the phenomenon of scanning and communication. A model for evaluating environment In this section, common threads in the studied about environment will look. Since the goal is integration and clarity rather than merely the presentation of lots of diverse research findings, its important to seek some common ground in the environmental literature. One popular device for integrating the environmental literature has been to break environmental uncertainty down into two dimensions that can be depicted as a two- by two matrix with four cells. The two dimensions consider the degree of change and complexity in the environment and their impact on the managerial decision making. Environmental change ranges from static (where there is little change) to dynamic. The more dynamic the environment, the more it is difficult it is for management to accurately predict the probabilities associated with various decision alternatives. All other things being equal, management would prefer to face static or unchanging environment because it provides high predictability. Environm ental complexity refers to the number of external components that can influence the organizations operations. When it is simple, there tend to be few components that management needs to monitor, and the components tend to be homogeneous. Increases in complexity lead to decentralization, which enables the organization to more effectively and more closely monitor an expanding array of heterogeneous environmental components. A model for evaluating environment Organizations operating in static-simple environments (cell1) experience the least amount of perceived uncertainty in decision making, whereas organizations in dynamic-complex environments (cell 4) experience the greatest amount of perceived uncertainty. Researches, however suggest that however, suggests that the two dimensions do not have an equal impact on uncertainty. The test data, based on twenty two decision making groups in six organizations, revealed that the static-dynamic dimensions made the largest contribution to perceived uncertainty. Specifically, decision units with dynamic environment always experience significantly more uncertainty in decision making regardless of whether their environment simple or complex. Assuming the company wanted to asses an organizations environment, in terms of the degree of thee uncertainty it faces, how would managers go about it? Thats certainty affair question, but implies agreement on a measure of environmental uncertainty. Of co urse modifications will be necessary to reflect an organizations specific environment and domain in which it has a chosen to operate. Different researches show that organizations which face to the more complex and uncertain environment should be more organic in their structure and mechanistic structures are suitable for the statistic and simple environment. These conclusions align with the discussion of technology and structure in the previous chapter. Routine technologies operate in relative uncertainty, whereas Nonroutine technologies imply relative uncertainty. High environmental uncertainty or technology of a Nonroutine nature both require organic types structures. Similarly, low environmental uncertainty or routine technology can be managed more effectively in the mechanistic structures. Culture In 1980s, the concept of organizational culture was in common use. First researches focused on the organizations corporate climate, but later it replaces with the concept of culture. [9] Climate was redefined as the visible expression of organizational culture. There is no generally accepted definition of either concept. Organizational culture is said to mean, for example, an organizations values an organizations generally accepted system of meaning or an organizations operating philosophy despite the uncertainty of the concepts definition, the significance of culture is understood, particularly in the corporate world. Traditional mechanistic management models have been found to be inadequate and contrary to fundamental human nature. [10] Cultures Function There are a lot of different functions for the culture within the organization. First, we can different the organizations with their cultures. Second, culture creates an organizational personality for the members. Third, it makes commitment to the organizational interests. Fourth, culture improves the stability of social systems. Consequently, culture helps to create a mechanism to guide the employees attitude in the organization shape. Now the most important question here is that how can managers asset their organizations culture. There is no similar answer to this question. Some researches use quantitative methods to evaluate organizations culture, like Denison. [16] Some researchers, however, refuse to apply quantitative methods at all. According to Ernst, these divergent opinions are due to different perspectives on corporate culture. Apart from different underlying cultural paradigms, however, the decision to apply qualitative or quantitative methods can be made dependin g on the cultural level to be analyzed. For example, the measurement of deep elements is difficult via a standardized questionnaire. These cultural elements require the researcher to tap subconscious, but taken-for-granted, learned responses Therefore, qualitative analysis using in-depth interviews, case studies and observations are more likely to yield meaningful results. In this regard, it is more useful to discover the data about the organizational culture than the quantitative research methods, based on answers of organizational members to written questions, are more appropriate to measure organizational members perceptions of their organizational work practices. Thus, quantitative research methods tap facets of the surface level of corporate culture. A major advantage of using quantitative research methods is that it convert fuzzy concept of the culture to the reliable data. [16] This approach help specialist to compare the results. Second, from a practitioners perspective, is very useful to identify the gaps between the existing and the desired state of culture. For organizational development or culture change programs, it is an attractive tool to measure the impact and/ or progress of those initiatives. Literature often refers to a typology that has been suggested by Burns and Stalker who distinguish between mechanistic and organic organizations. Both terms mechanistic and organic describe organizational structures as well as organizational cultures. In the organic culture, communication is lateral. An example for this type of the vulture is that, employees from the RD department talk directly to their coworkers in the marketing department. In mechanistic cultures, communication is rather vertical, involving the boss or supervisor. Decision-making in organic cultures is not on the basis of the structural hierarchy. The employees have enough knowledge and experience to make decisions. Employees working in organic cultures have more opportunities to be more receptive and open to new ideas, technologies, or market insights than those working in mechanistic cultures. Finally, organic cultures are assumed to be more flexible in processing information and exchanging ideas and, thus, are more likely to recognize the potential of a (radical) innovation. The differences between both types are summarized in Table. Mechanistic Organic Communication Communication is vertical along hierarchical lines, largely from boss to subordinate, telling them what to do. Communication is lateral, allowing, for example, for marketing and engineering to talk to each other directly and more often. Locus of influence Influence rests more with those higher up in the hierarchy. Those with expertise of knowledge have the influence Job responsibilities Well- defined job responsibilities Job responsibilities are not well- defined, allowing for objectivity in receiving and evaluating ideas. Information flow Emphasis is on unidirectional top- down flow of information. Emphasis is on exchange of ideas and not unidirectional top down flow of information Conduciveness to innovation Least conductive to recognizing the potential of innovation Most conductive to recognizing the potential of an innovation. The differences between organic and mechanistic culture In addition to the mechanistic-organic dimension, Quinn and colleagues as well as Cameron and Freeman use a second dimension in order to measure corporate culture. This second dimension differentiates between a focus on internal orientation and integration and an emphasis on external orientation and differentiation. Together, the resulting four cultural dimensions, which are labeled clan, hierarchy, adhocracy, and market, constitute the competing values framework, which is illustrated in the next figure. Types of organizational culture in the competing values framework [17] The lower right quadrant market culture identifies an external and control (mechanistic) focus and emphasizes competitiveness and goal achievement. Employees in a market culture are expected to be goal-oriented producers. In the organization with market culture wants to maximize the productivity to increase their competitive advantage and to finally attain market dominance. The market culture type stands in direct contrast to the values that constitute the clan culture in the upper left quadrant of Figure. The clan culture has an internal and flexible (organic) focus and emphasizes cohesiveness, participation, and teamwork. Similar to a family, managers mentor the members task or parent-figures, and people share their personal values and goals. Clan cultures emphasize the development of human resources, team cohesion, as well as employee morale and commitment. In this cultures type, personal satisfaction is more important to the managers than the market share or other financial per formance. Hierarchy culture type identifies an internal and control (mechanistic) focus. The underlying set of values in a hierarchy culture put strong emphasis on formalized rules, procedures, and policies that govern employees actions in the organization. The strategic emphasis of a hierarchy culture is on stability, predictability, and efficient operations. The competing set of values is found in the adhocracy culture, which is depicted in the upper right quadrant of Figure. The adhocracy culture identifies an external and flexible (organic) focus and emphasizes entrepreneurship and creativity. The most important characteristics of this type of organizations culture are dynamic and creative workplace where individual initiative, experimentation, flexibility, and freedom are important. Its overall goal is to find new markets and new directions for growth, new technologies and new market opportunities As stressed by Deshpand, Farley and Webster, firms usually have several typ es of cultures. Thus, different business units of one firm may have different cultures. For assessment, the method of Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument is used according to this typology for culture. The assessment method will explain in the methodology chapter.